The Death of Cook, 1784, 1787-1788

The Death of Cook, John Cleveley the Younger, 1784, collection unknown.

Detail from The Death of Cook, John Cleveley the Younger, 1784, Wikimedia Commons.

Detail from The Death of Cook, John Cleveley the Younger, c.1784, Honolulu Academy of Arts via Wikimedia Commons.

View of Owhyhee, one of the Sandwich Islands (Known as The Death of Cook), John Cleveley the Younger, published posthumously by Frances Jukes, 1788, Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa.

John Cleveley the Younger, a prolific marine artist, followed in the footsteps of his father. Unlike other marine artists, the Cleveley family maintained connections to the world of common sailors. John Cleveley the Elder and his son James were both ship's carpenters.

James was lucky enough to join Captain Cook's fateful third voyage aboard the Resolution. It is quite possible that he personally witnessed the death of Captain Cook, and so could inform his brother John's work on the subject.

For centuries, copies of Cleveley the Younger's depiction of Captain Cook's death could be found in collections around the world, including some of those shown above. In 2004, the original painting turned up for auction at Christies, where it caught more than three times the expected price. Much of this was due to the difference between the original and the copies.

As reported at the time, Cleveley showed Cook clubbing his musket and fighting with the natives of Hawaii, rather than fleeing as in the subsequent, sanitized versions.

The sailors themselves are clad in red, brown, and blue jackets, with white trousers, and one or two trousers with narrow vertical red or blue stripes. One oarsman even appears to be wearing a striped jacket. Round hats make up the headwear of the common sailors in Cleveley's piece.

A View of Christmas Harbour, 1784

A View of Christmas Harbour in Kerguelen's Island, engraved by Newton after John Webber, 1784, Davidson Galleries.

Thanks once more to Adam Hodges-LeClaire for pointing this out to me!

The harbor seen here was originally drawn by John Webber over the week of Christmas in 1776. Webber was accompanying the famous explorer Captain James Cook on the Discovery and Resolution. Cook wrote in his journal on December 24:

I immidiately dispatched Mr [William] Bligh the Master in a boat to Sound the Harbour, who on his return reported it to be safe and commodious with good anchorage in every part, and great plenty of fresh water, Seals, Penguins and other birds on the shore but not a stick of Wood.

Webber's original drawing, in the collection of the British Library, shows a slightly different scene. The penguins are still milling about, but there is no club bearing sailor come to hunt them. Two are already dead by his feet. It is unclear why the sailor was later added, and who put him in there. Perhaps he was drawn to add some action to an otherwise rather static scene. There is another version, colorized, in the collection of the State Library of New South Wales, that includes the club carrying sailor.

Our tar wears a cap or round hat with very short brim. His jacket (blue in the State Library of NSW version) runs to the natural waist, and his plain white trousers with side seam pockets end at about the bottom of the calf, revealing his white stockings.

The Death of Captain James Cook, F.R.S. at Owhyhee in 1779, 1790

The Death of Captain James Cook, F.R.S. at Owhyhee in 1779, Daniel Lizars, 1790, John Carter Brown Library Archive of Early American Images.

This engraving was included in the 1790 book Captain Cook's Voyages Round the World, and is yet another in the long line of artistic representations of the event. In this version, Cook's killer is portrayed as Brutus, complete with dagger and toga. Cook himself is shown in a less than heroic pose, already slain and being dragged away by a Hawaiian who wears his pilfered coat.

Just as the engraver took inspiration from classical representations of the death of Caesar, the sailors and officers clambering into the boat are clearly drawn from George Carter's 1783 painting The Death of Captain Cook.

Sailors, marines, and naval officers are mixed on the boat, but we can pick out a few figures who are definitely sailors. They wear plain trousers and close cut hair, with jackets sporting scalloped mariners cuffs. One oarsman has his back to us, showing his jacket to be triple vented.

Mort tragique du Capitaine Cook, 1780

Mort tragique du Capitaine Cook, Antoine Souci, 1780, John Carter Brown Library Archive of Early American Images.

The Death of Captain Cook is a popular subject for art. This woodcut, from the 1780 Almanach historique nommé Le messager boiteux, is not a masterpiece among those. The ships are anachronistically old, and the Hawaiians are portrayed in an odd fashion that looks more like classical Hercules than the contemporary Kalaniʻōpuʻu.

What makes this an interesting piece is that is represents a continental European perspective on the event. For my purposes, that means the sailors here may represent what continental Europeans thought British sailors should look like.

The only sailor we get a good look at is fleeing from a Hawaiian raising his club. Our frightened sailor wears a single breasted jacket with flowing skirts that end at the top of the thigh. His trousers are close fit, and end about the bottom of the calf. He also wears a cocked hat with the point forward.

Landing at Middleburgh, one of the Friendly Islands, 1777

Landing at Middelburgh, one of the Friendly Islands, engraved by J.K. Sherwin after William Hodges, 1777, David Rumsey Map Collection.

I covered Hodges' original painting back in October. Hodges actually sailed with Captain Cook, and so is an unusually reliable source for examining common sailors' clothing. It is likely that each figure in his works are based on particular sailors of Cook's expedition.

Usually when I come across a print or colorization that is a copy of an original, I include them in the same post. Given that Hodges is such a reliable source, and this engraving make some significant changes to the appearance of the common sailors, I have decided to treat them separately.

One of Sherwin's more obvious departures from Hodges is his depiction of the sailor on the bow. While Hodges' man sports a slight smile and more relaxed grip, Sherwin's mariner is evocative of the coxswain in Watson and the Shark. Sherwin's sailor has loose hair blown in a breeze that doesn't effect anyone else in the print. Both sailors wear the same outfit: shirtsleeves and single breasted jacket rolled up well above the elbows, no waistcoat, a small round hat with narrow brim, and a plain pair of petticoat trousers without breeches beneath.

This resurrects the ongoing debate over whether sailors wore breeches beneath their slops. Clearly Sherwin does not think so. Hodges' image is less clear, but could legitimately be interpreted as such.

Sherwin's sailors are superficially dressed similarly to the men in Hodges' original. Round hats abound (though of more rounded crowns than the conical ones Hodges depicts), rolled up shirtsleeves, and a patterned neckcloth. There are a couple of key differences. The two men sitting in the boat are shown wearing jackets or sleeved waistcoats, while Hodges shows them in waistcoats. Further, one of the two men in the water is not a sailor but a gentleman with white clubbed hair, a frock coat, and cravat.

The coxwain looks considerably different as well. He wears petticoat trousers , an open jacket and shirt with a loosely tied neckcloth that is oddly knotted behind his head, and a floppy brimmed round hat with conical crown.

Landing at Middleburgh, Friendly Islands, 1774-1777

Landing of Captain Cook at Middleburg, Friendly Islands, William Hodges, between 1774-1777, National Maritime Museum.

William Hodges, the artist of this painting, was a witness to this scene. Hodges sailed aboard the Resolution with Cook on Cook's second voyage, and documented numerous scenes along the way. According to the curators at the British Museum, Hodges' painting documents Cook landing with his sailors at the island of Eau, accompanied by the Tongan chief Tioonee who bears a plantain leaf aloft.

Unlike other paintings of Cook's voyages that I've examined, Hodges' piece gives us a good view of common sailor's clothing. Common sailors are often given little detail in his paintings for a reason: the artist Hodges was trying to document previously unknown people, lands, plants, and animals, not what British subjects were already familiar with.

At the bow of the jolly boat is a sailor laying his oar into the sand to slow the vessel. He wears a short brimmed round hat and a waistcoat that hangs open. His white shirt is rolled up well above his elbows, tucked into his petticoat trousers.

Amidships stands captain Cook leaning on his musket, and between him and Tioonee is a sailor in the water, guiding the boat in by hand. He is bare headed, wearing an open white shirt and an open blue jacket.

Aft of Cook are three oarsmen. In the foreground is a sailor with a red waistcoat. A black round hat and short brim is atop his head, and a checked shirt is rolled up well above his elbows. The mariner appears is also wearing a dotted neckcloth.

Beside him is an oarsmen wearing a round hat and blue waistcoat. Standing in the water and guiding the boat by hand stands a sailor in a blue jacket. At the stern is an oarsman in an open blue jacket and a single breasted waistcoat. This jack wears a pair of trousers and his shirt is notably open, lacking a neck cloth.

A quick note on dates. The National Maritime Museum's catalog entry states a wider range than I give the painting. The event depicted occurred in 1774, and so could not have been earlier than that. However, prints of this painting begin to appear in 1777, and so the painting must have been completed or nearly so by then. Thus, my date range differs from that proposed by the National Maritime Museum.

Death of Captain James Cook, 1783

Death of Captain James Cook, George Carter, 1783, Wikimedia Commons.

Death of Captain James Cook, George Carter, 1783, National Library of Australia.

Captain James Cook is arguably the most prominent naval figure of the late eighteenth century. His explorations dramatically expanded Britain's understanding of the world and enabled its dramatic imperial expansion. It is therefore easy to see why his unfortunate end was the subject of numerous artistic depictions in the years following his death. Thanks again to the 18th Century Material Culture Resource Center for pointing me in this direction.

So far as I can tell, there are two separate original pieces done by George Carter in 1783. This was the year the American Revolutionary War ended in favor of the former colonists, and Britain was reeling from the national humiliation. Some of that feeling of despair and helplessness comes through in the worried and distressed expressions of nearly all concerned in these paintings.

At the center of the boat and stepping in is a tar with a black cap, though I can't be certain if it is felt or knit. About his neck is an orange and red neckcloth which hangs over his white jacket. His trousers are of an interesting pattern of blue stripes running vertically along white. What makes them interesting is that the stripes are not of a universal width. In the Wikimedia copy, he wears dark blue stockings, while the NLA copy shows him bare legged.

Near the stern (to the far right beside the naval officer the detail) and clenching his fists is a sailor in a white shirt with narrow blue vertical stripes and natural color trousers that are perhaps canvas. His neckcloth is purple with white dots, and atop his head is a dark cap lined with fur.

Behind him and slightly to the right is a fellow with short hair and a green jacket without a waistcoat. Pushing off with an oar, his mate wears a shirt without neckcloth, waistcoat, or jacket. Cowering in the background is a fellow who is depicted with a white shirt and blue jacket, or a blue shirt. Further forward and reaching out to help a fellow clinging to the bow is a man in a black cap and a brown or blue jacket. Interestingly, the hat style changes from a shovel hat to a round hat between the different paintings. At last, a man reaches over the gunwales to help another sailor. He sports a bald spot and curly hair over a white shirt and orange or purple neckcloth.

One of the more interesting differences between these paintings is the changing of the shooting men from marines to naval officers. the cut of their uniforms is identical, but the color and therefore their role changes. In the details I have just examined, there is a firing line (far less ragged than this) of marines in red coats, so it should not be assumed that these are marines in variant uniforms. This change raises the question as to the artist's original intent for these men, and his decision to change them.

In any case, there's another sailor holding his boat with an oar in the water. In one version, he sports a blue jacket with striped shirt, purple neckcloth, and plain trousers. In the next, he wears a red jacket over a plain shirt with a black neckcloth and plain trousers.

A wealth of details abound in each of these paintings, and I'm sure I've missed a few. Let me know what you spot in the comments below!

A view of Endeavour River, 1773

"A view of Endeavour River, on the coast of New Holland, where the ship was laid on shore, in order to repair the damage which she received on the rock," engraved by William Byrne after Sydney Parkinson, 1773, National Maritime Museum.

It has been some time since we last visited Captain Cook!

This scene finds the Endeavour intentionally grounded in Queensland at the mouth of what they have named the Endeavour River. Cook's ship struck the four mile long Endeavour Reef, suffering damage that required serious repairs. For seven weeks Cook and his crew would patch up the vessel while the scientists scoured the surrounding area to collect and study flora and fauna. Cook also made an effort to reach out to the local Guugu Yimithirr people.

To the south of the beached Endeavour is a boat full of oarsmen who row easy. The oarsmen themselves wear round hats with narrow brims and short jackets. In the stern is an officer, possibly Cook, and a standing coxswain. The cox wears a round hat and jacket as well, and though he is standing there is too little details to say more about his slop clothes.

Portrait of Master William Bligh, c.1776

Portrait of Master William Bligh, John Webber, c. 1776, National Portrait Gallery (Australia).

As with some previous posts, this one does not focus on a common sailor, and so will not be tagged.

The Master of a Royal Navy vessel occupied an interesting space in the naval hierarchy. Highly skilled, the Master served as navigator for his vessel in the odd position of a senior warrant officer. Masters were not considered common sailors, but neither were they commissioned officers. According to Eberhard Karls Universität PhD candidate Lena Mosser, who is writing her dissertation on Masters, the Royal Navy did not even designate a uniform for them until 1787, and that was the same uniform worn by all warrant officers. Masters did not receive their own distinctive uniforms until 1807.

Interestingly, at the time this portrait was done, the Continental Navy did specify uniforms for Masters. Perhaps this can be attributed to the more democratic ideals of the American rebels, or as a reflection of their hope for merit to be properly rewarded and recognized.

It was as a Master in the Royal Navy that William Bligh found his initial fame. Bligh served as Master of the Resolution under Captain James Cook for the wildly successful exploring expedition around the world. Cook praised Bligh's competence in navigation, and it was this esteem that earned him the Bounty. Unfortunately for everyone involved, Bligh's dedication and success with navigation did not translate to naval leadership.

Bligh's suit is not properly a uniform, nor is it a common sailor's slop clothes. He wears a bob wig with what appears to be a short queue at the back. A black silk cravat is bound in a large and fanciful bow beneath the white collars of his shirt. The slit of his shirt is pinned with a silver masonic square and compass. His blue wool coat is double breasted and lined in white, with simple turned back cuffs and domed brass buttons. His waistcoat is a single breasted white affair with cloth covered buttons and slit pockets at the waist. Bligh's breeches (or possibly, though unlikely, trousers) are white.

The departure of Captains Gore and King, accompanied by Major Behm, Governor of Kamschatka, c.1780

"The  departure of Captains Gore and King, accompanied by Major Behm, Governor of Kamschatka," Johannn Eckstein, c.1780, Anne S.K. Brown Military Collection.

As one of a pair illustrated by Eckstein, these prints depict events that occurred in 1779, and were printed shortly thereafter. This piece depicts the continuing voyage of the Resolution following the death of the famous explorer Captain James Cook. The surviving officers of his crew were greeted by the Russians of Kamchatka and were given the aid and assistance that would allow them to complete their voyage.

To the far left of the frame are a small crew of sailors who are loading up the boats for the return to Resolution.

The boat crew wear blue jackets and close fitting white trousers with black round hats with tall cylindrical crowns. Standing at the bow of one of the boats is a man wearing trousers and what appears to be an apron. On the boats themselves, the tars are dressed for the remarkably cold weather. Long brown overcoats lined in fur are coupled with thick knit caps,  which may also be lined with fur. The figure amidships in the middle boat wears a long blue overcoat, the fabric of which is crossed with long, thin, vertical lines of slightly darker blue. It is also lined with fur.

Manhandling the cargo are a few more tars. Tow of them appear hatless, but wearing the same blue jackets and close fitted white trousers as their mates. The man in the center wears striped trousers with faded, but thin vertical grey lines.

It is worth noting the man in the black round hat in the background embracing a Russian. It appears they are exchanging a kiss, though the precise nature of their relationship is not clear. I will leave that to experts on Russian culture of the eighteenth century, a field far beyond my reckoning!

A Representation of the Surrender of the Island of Otaheite..., 1773

A Representation of the Surrender of the Island of Otaheite to Captain Wallis by the Supposed Queen Oberea, artist unknown, 1773, Princeton University.

Drawn from the 1773 book An Account of the Voyages Undertaken by the Order of His Present Majesty for Making Discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere, this image depicts the moment that Captain Samuel Wallis, an explorer who plied the Pacific to explore and map islands much in the same way that Cook would. With imperialistic flare, the artist here depicts a "surrender" that never occurred. In the words of John Delaney, Map Curator of Princeton University:

This exact scene is not described by Wallis. In fact, he was quite sick and weak when they arrived at Tahiti and did not set foot on the island until two weeks later. Seeing his condition, the queen ordered her people to carry him to her house, where young girls were instructed to massage his body. When he was ready to leave, the queen offered to have him carried again, but he refused and chose to walk. Even then, the queen took him by the arm and literally lifted him over areas of water or mud on the way back to the ship.

A party of marines accompanies Wallis on his expedition to meet the "supposed" Queen of Tahiti. Among their line is an uncomfortable looking sailor.

The tar, bent under the weight of his musket, wears a cocked hat trimmed in white tape with the point forward. His short jacket ends at the top of the thigh, and is tucked back enough to reveal a belt with a pistol tucked inside. Slops are fitted over his breeches, along with white stockings.

View in Pickersgill Harbour, early 1770's

View in Pickersgill Harbour, Dusky Bay, New Zealand, William Hodges, early 1770's, National Maritime Museum.

At first glance, this painting is barely nautical. The lone figure in the center of the piece, dwarfed by the tall trees, seems to be dragged down by his exhaustion. He lacks the round hat, neckcloth, and short jacket of a sailor. The only hint of his occupation is the short hair and the trousers.

The composition of the piece is fascinating. The forest of New Zealand blends into the vessel on the far right, which almost appears to be part of the wilderness.

What we see here is a rare meeting between the genre of maritime art, and the new age of exploration. You may recognize Hodges from previous entries in this blog, and this is a part of the same series: the voyages of Captain Cook.

Sea Horses of Icy Cape, 1790

Sea Horses of Icy Cape, M. Brown, 1790, John Carter Brown Library.

Taken from the book Captain Cook's Voyages Round the World, this engraving depicts a group of tars laying fire into a tightly packed group of walruses (here named "sea horses") in Alaska. Setting aside the humorous expressions on the faces of the seamen and the walruses, we'll dive right in to examining the seamen's clothes.

All of our tars wear plain trousers and close fit short jackets. For those who have their backs turned to us, we see their jackets are without vents or cuffs. The oarsmen amidships show that the jackets have white lapels, and one of them has matching white mariner's cuffs. Though most are without hats, a pair (at the least) wear knit caps, and one rather tall man in the back wears a round hat bound in tape and turned up on one side. It is possible the hat is turned up on both sides, but the perspective here only allows us to speculate.

Alexander Selkirk Makes his Cats and Kids dance before Captn Cook and his Company, 1774

Alexander Selkirk Makes his Cats and Kids dance before Captn Cook and his Company, artist unknown, 1774, John Carter Brown Library.

Drawn from the 1774 book An Historical account of all the voyages round the world, performed by English navigators..., this image shows the entertainment offered to Captain Cook and his crew by the famous castaway Alexander Selkirk. Selkirk's experiences would be fictionalized into the story of Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe. Thankfully for us, the officers and crew are both included in this print.

At the right of the frame, a few tars merrily enjoy the show. The most prominent are the two portly seamen who both wear reversed cocked hats. Each has a solid colored neckcloth tied about the neck. Interestingly, the sailor on the right wears a frock coat, long waistcoat with cutaway, and breeches. If not for his hat, short hair, neckcloth, and the stick, I would think he wasn't a sailor at all! The fellow next to him is more traditional in his slop clothes: short jacket (albeit with cuffs) and trousers that end above the ankle. In the foreground is yet another mariner, this one in a round hat with a tall crown, a short jacket with buttoned mariner's cuffs, and a pair of trousers.

On the left and in the dark foreground are two more tars. One wears a cocked hat with the point forward, a short jacket with buttoned mariner's cuffs and a single vent, and trousers. The other is dressed much the same, save for his jockey style cap.

Landing at Mallicolo, One of the New Hebrides, 1770's

Landing at Mallicolo, One of the New Hebrides, William Hodges, mid-1770's, National Maritime Museum.

William Hodges gives us another view of Captain Cook's explorations, one that is decidedly more peaceful than the last painting we examined! Four officers stand in the foreground atop the boats, while a number of marines and sailors sit and work aboard the boats.

Behind Cook's barge a sailor gestures toward the natives ashore. His shirt is wide open and he wears no neckcloth. Atop his head he wears a simple workman's cap or knit cap. Beside him is another tar in a white shirt with the sleeves rolled up. His neckcloth is an orange or a red, though the exact details are a little unclear. Further astern is a jack in a typical blue jacket, and behind him is a seaman standing with the oar. His open shirt is white, matching very loose breeches or possibly trousers rolled up above his calves.

To the right of the marine officer in the red coat is a coxswain. The coxswain's shirt is also white, and he wears blue breeches and a dark cap. His oarsmen are likewise in their shirtsleeves, but without caps.

Landing at Erramanga, One of the New Hebrides, 1770s

Landing at Erramanga, One of the New Hebrides, William Hodges, 1775-1777, National Maritime Museum.

According to the National Maritime Museum, this was part of a series painted by Hodges to document the various adventures of the famous explorer Captain James Cook to accompany his writings when they were published in 1777. Cook's voyages are extremely well documented and incredibly dramatic. Of particular interest to us is the unique perspective they give us a picture of sailor's life in a very different setting. This is the first of the images I've examined that is set in the Pacific, rather than the Atlantic or Mediterranean.

At the stern of the jolly boat, a frightened looking tar, probably the coxswain, clutches his firelock. He wears a black round hat with a narrow and upturned brim, a black neckcloth, white trousers, and a brown short jacket. Interestingly, he appears to be wearing a brown leather belt outside of his jacket, possibly holding up a cartouche box.

In the center of the jollyboat is another jack aiming his firelock at the native warriors. I would guess by his sword, and the gold trim on his hat, that this is an officer.

At the bow a number of sailors push their oars into the sand in an attempt to escape. One of them is shirtless with a light red or orange neckcloth. In front of him at the center is a lad in a white shirt, black neckcloth, and petticoat trousers. Oddly, a pair of their mates are wearing long and open sleeved waistcoats or possibly jackets of blue and brown. I hesitate to conclude they are jackets as the garments are rolled up well above their elbows; this would be rather difficult with your typical woolen jacket. The closest seaman to the natives and standing at the very tip of the bow, is a tar in a black cocked hat, white trousers, and a blue, unlined jacket.