A New Way to Pay the National-Debt, 1786

A new way to pay the National-Debt, James Gillray, 1786, British Museum.

King George III, accompanied by Queen Charlotte, smiles broadly as money pours from his breeches. He is heralded by musicians who are likewise festooned with gold guineas, and a gentleman who offers a fat sack of cash. This is juxtaposed against a quadriplegic sailor who sits with his empty round hat between wooden legs.

Unlike virtually every other sailor featured on this blog, this poor tarpaulin wears a beard. Beards were generally frowned upon in the eighteenth century, with the English in particular being opposed to any facial hair. The fact that this destitute man sports a full white beard is a testament to his helplessness.

The sailors wears a yellow and red plaid neckcloth over his double breasted blue jacket, which ends at his waist and sits over the plain pair of slops/petticoat trousers that cover his thighs. Blue breeches run down to his wooden legs.

Opposition Defeated, 1780

Opposition Defeated, artist unknown, 1780, British Museum.

This is a dense political cartoon in which Lord North rides a bull, blowing with such ferocity that he swings a sign with a crown out of reach of the Prince of Wales, who stands atop Charles Fox's shoulders.

There's a lot going on here, including a dog, the King, and Satan. Let's focus on the sailor.

He sits atop the trade sign in the upper right of the cartoon, clutching to it and shouting "D------n my eyes Huza Boreas and John Bull have don for them!" I presume, though do not know, that he is referring to Boreas: the mythical Greek god of the north wind.

North. Wind. Get it?

Our sailor waves a round hat over his head, and wears a jacket that ends at the waist. His trousers have narrow vertical stripes widely spaced. His shoes are round toed.

It is worth noting that this pose and character are not new to political cartoons. Both the 1740 European Race for a Distance and the 1741 What's All This! The Motley Team of State have a sailor straddling a pole in a political cartoon.

The Virtuous and inspir'd State of Whigism in Bristol, 1781

The Virtuous and inspir'd State of Whigism in Bristol 1781, artist unknown, 1781, British Museum.

This cartoon references the special election for a Member of Parliament for Bristol. The figure holding the striped American flag with the words "The Voice of Rebellion is a Supreme Law which passeth all Understanding" is Henry Cruger.

Born in New York, Henry Cruger was one of a very, very few American born politicians to actually attain a seat in Parliament. A radical supporter of the American cause during the Revolutionary War, he lost his seat in Bristol in 1780. According to the catalog entry for this piece at the British Museum, Sir Henry Lippincott, another Member of Parliament for Bristol, died shortly after the election. Special elections were called, and so Cruger ran again. His outspoken support for American independence is lampooned in this cartoon, and is only barely exaggerated. The British Museum states that Cruger ran up American flags on churches in Bristol during the election.

A sailor sits astride a decorated bull in a procession of Whigs, proclaims "You English Scoundrels hers the American Flesh & Blood of a Bull." He waves a pendent with thirteen stars, and sits in front of a bundle labeled "Secreted Copies." This bundle probably refers to the secret correspondence that Cruger was suspected of carrying on with his American counterparts.

Our mariner's outfit is clearly that of a sailor. A single breasted jacket that ends about just below the waist over a single breasted waistcoat is fitted with a short collar and plain cuffs. The sailor's round hat is bound with tape around the brim and the crown with a large rosette on the front. Beneath the hat is a bob wig with a queue. His trousers fit close to the leg with narrow vertical stripes.

In the end, Cruger lost his election bid. The people of Bristol elected him mayor that same year. He moved to the newly independent United States in 1790 and served in the New York State Senate. 

Print, 1784

Print, Samuel Ireland, 1784, British Museum.

Ireland's piece may more properly be called a sketch than a print. It shares in a cliche of political cartoons that include common sailors: that of a common tar engaging with the stereotypical figures of a Dutchman and Spaniard.

The sailor wears a cocked hat with the point forward, His single breasted jacket ends at the waist, and appears to be lined in a lighter material. Lacking a waistcoat, we can see his plain shirt and plain neckcloth. Close fitting, long legged trousers run to just above his ankles and fit fairly close to the leg, with a broad fall fly. Pointed toe shoes finish his slop clothes. In the sailor's left hand is some difficult to identify accessory. It might be a tankard, or perhaps a sand glass, which was commonly paired with images of death at the time as a memento mori. Any thoughts?

Proclamation of Peace, 1783

Proclamation of Peace, William Wells, 1783, British Museum.

Mocking the alliance of America, France, Spain, and the Dutch during the American War of Independence, this political cartoon nevertheless welcomes the end of the war. An angel flies over the party, heralding the peace. At the head of the small group is an America, holding aloft a tomahawk and gleefully exclaiming their lack of loyalty to both Britain and the alliance. France is nonplussed (though happy for the steady supply of tobacco), while both Spain and Holland are intimidated by Britain, in the person of Jack Tar.

Our Jack wears no hat, and sports short curly hair. His neckcloth is striped and tucked into the single breasted waistcoat. His dark jacket is without collar or cuffs, and ends about the top of the thigh. Wide legged petticoat trousers run down to his calves, allowing us to see his white stockings and round toed shoes with rectangular buckles. In his right hand, Between he and Holland is a short sword with an eagle headed pommel.

S (Sailor), 1781

"S (Sailor)," Thomas Bewick, 1781, British Museum.

Taken from the book Reading Made Very Easy and Diverting, this illustration of a sailor represents the letter "s." Given that this book is intended to get the concept across as quickly and easily as possible to the reader, we can take this image as an effort to capture the stereotypical appearance of sailors.

He wears a cocked hat witht he point forward, a double breasted jacket without cuffs that ends at the waist, long and close fitting trousers made with a broad fall fly, and a sword at his waist. And what sailor would be complete without a rather large tankard or a glass in his hand?

To the right of the sailor is what appears (at first glance) to be a keg or barrel. According to the curators of the British Museum that is intended to be the rear of a cannon.

The Murder of Kenith Hossack by Captain Lowry, date unknown

The Murder of Kenith Hossack by Captain Lowry, Samuel Wale, date unknown, Yale Center for British Art.

Captain Lowry is the notoriously brutal captain who was hanged for the beating death of a sailor aboard the Molly merchantman. I've featured an image of his crime before, and later found out the print was part of the popular Newgate Calendar. The Yale Center for British Art appears to be in possession of the original drawing from which the print was taken. Samuel Wale drew a number of works, some of which closely match the crimes featured in the Calendar, including this. Given the date of the crime (1750) and the date of Wale's death (1786) we can certainly place the date of the drawing within our period of study, if not more exactly.

Hossack's wrists are bound to the shrouds while Lowry lays into him. Hossack wears a work cap, His jacket bears two vents at the back, and if made with scalloped mariner's cuffs. Given that the right lapel of his jacket bears only buttonholes and not buttons, we can reasonably conclude that it is single breasted.

The fellow beside the unfortunate Hossack is presumably James Gadderar, the chief mate of the Molly and star witness in Lowry's trial. Gadderar wears a round hat with a remarkably short crown and brim. His black neckcloth is tied neatly about his neck, and hangs down over his shirt, as he clearly lacks a waistcoat. Just like Hossack, Gadderar wears a single breasted jacket without collar and scalloped mariner's cuffs.

Both sailors wear slops/petticoat trousers with dark stockings and round toed shoes.

An English Sloop and a Frigate in a Light Breeze, date unknown

An English Sloop and a Frigate in a Light Breeze, Francis Swaine, exhibited between 1762 and 1782, Yale Center for British Art.

Both vessels painted here by Swaine in the third quarter of the eighteenth century are ship rigged. Sloop, as a naval designation at the time, did not refer to the number of masts or arrangement of sails, but rather to how many guns she carried.

The first vessel here mounts nine guns to each side, rating her at 18 guns. This makes the vessel at the right of the frame our sloop.

Her crew are not highly detailed. We can say their wear jackets of brown and blue hues, knit caps, and at least one cocked hat. Interestingly, the men on the bow wear trousers, and at least one of them is wearing blue trousers. This may be intentional, or it may simply have been to avoid having the small figure interfere with the pallet of the sail and ship.

The titular frigate mounts eleven guns to each side of her gun deck, and three smaller guns per side on her poop, bringing her up to 28 altogether. This places her well within the sixth rate frigate category.

Her crewmen are muddled with even less detail than those of the sloop. Swaine was not illustrating the common men, but the seascape. So the best we can say is that some of them wear blue jackets. It doesn't leave us with much, but the painting as a whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

The Landing of the Sailor Prince at Spithead, 1765

"The Landing of the Sailor Prince at Spithead," Francis Swaine, 1765, Art Gallery of South Australia via the Google Art Project.

Though neither the Art Gallery of South Australia nor the Google Art Project give us any indication of who the sailor prince is, a simple glance at the royal family of 1765 turns up the answer fairly quickly. Prince Edward, the Duke of York and Albany, was the only immediate relative of the recently ascended George III to serve in the Royal Navy. The Duke climbed quickly to the position of Vice Admiral of the Blue, a position he would hold until his premature death in 1767.

The Duke is heading ashore on a barge bearing the royal colors, to a salute fired from a ship of the line festooned with the royal colors, king's colors, and a red flag with a gold fouled anchor.

Watching with only a passing interest, a few fellows ashore relax with their dog, pipes of tobacco, and a few drinks. Given the short brims on their hats, the lack of collars on their short jackets, the walking stick held by the chap on the far right, and the petticoat trousers/slops that most of them wear, it is with confidence that I label these men sailors. One of them is clearly wearing breeches, which appear to be brown. The sailor sleeping beside the dog wears a red jacket or smock.

Two sloops sit in the calm water. One bears the red ensign (used by both the red squadron of the Royal Navy and merchantmen), and the other a flag with thirteen alternating red and white stripes. This ensign was later used by the Continental Navy, but in this case probably represents the East India Company, whose colors are almost indistinguishable from those of the rebel fleets early in the American Revolutionary War.

The sailors aboard the sloops wear short jackets of brown, blue, and red, knit caps and round hats, and petticoat trousers/slops.

With a solid red ensign at the bow, the barge in the foreground is manned by oarsmen in white shirtsleeves and jockey style barge caps. Interestingly, the barge caps are bright red.

Astern of the barge is another, this one bearing the Sailor Prince and his entourage, including what appears to be a marine officer in redcoat and untrimmed black cocked hat. The oarsmen here wear shirtsleeves just like their counterparts ahead, but their barge caps are the more traditional black.

Men Loading a Boat with Barrels, date unknown

Men Loading a Boat with Barrels, Samuel Scott, date unknown, Yale Center for British Art via Google Art Project.

Beside a goodly number of barrels, a pair of tarpawlins haul a rectangular package aboard. Both wear short  jackets that end about the top of the thigh with long slit cuffs. Though one has his back to us, the single vent on his jacket is wide open, and suggests that he wears no waistcoat, just like the sailor helping him. Both of them wear breeches with white stockings, but their headwear is quite different. One wears a colorful knit cap, and the other a cocked hat.

At the oar is a hatless man with a jacket not unlike that of his mates. It appears to be tucked into petticoat trousers, but I couldn't swear on it.

A single unfinished sailor is in the bow of the small boat. He wears his sleeves rolled up past the elbows, and bends over the cask. It appears our jack is wearing a pair of trousers, and a small workcap or knit cap.

There is considerably more detail on the fellow stepping out of the small boat. He wears a blue waistcoat with a single vent at the back, red breeches, and white stockings. Atop his head is a cocked hat with the point forward.

The cox takes a break to smoke his pipe and lose himself in contemplation. He wears a red or brown waistcoat, light colored breeches, stockings, and a cocked hat with the point forward.

Con-g-ss embark'd on board the ship Constitution of America, 1790

"Con-g-ss embark'd on board the ship Constitution of America bound to Conogocheque by way of Philadelphia," artist unknown, 1790, Library of Congress.

American independence did not free political cartoonists from the tradition of crowding their works with people, difficult to read word balloons, and meaning that is difficult for a modern audience to interpret.

Thankfully, the Library of Congress provides the context:

In July 1790 Congress decided to move the seat of the federal government from its original site in New York to Washington, with Philadelphia as an interim capital. The unidentified satirist gives a cynical view of the profit opportunity which this presented for Philadelphians. A three-masted ship with a smaller boat in tow sails toward a fork in a river. It is being lured by a devil toward the lower fork (eventually leading to Philadelphia), which falls precipitously in a rocky cataract, and away from the fork which leads to the "Potowmack" river. A devil beckons them on, saying, "This way Bobby" (referring to Robert Morris, the alleged instigator of the move).

Steering toward the falls from its opposite side, a small boat with three men plows upstream. They express their mercenary attitudes toward the impending destruction of the Constitution of America. "If we can catch the cargo never mind the Ship," says one. "Keep a sharp look out for a majority and the treasury," says another. Their mate, apparently replying to both of them, agrees: "Ay, Ay that's what we are after."

The men wear round hats with short brims, but are perhaps meant to be gentlemen in gentleman's suits, rather than sailors. The coxswain has the tall collar and long hair of a landsman. While the oarsmen do not exhibit either the cut of coat or long hair of their cox, they may well be interpreted as gentlemen as well.

The men crowded on the Constitution of America are likewise dressed in the style of congressmen, rather than tars. Drop down collars, cravats, and cocked hats are scattered throughout. The only detail that seems to match the clothing of common sailors is the lack of cuffs on their coats, and the tall crowned round hats. Being no expert on gentleman's clothing of 1790, I leave it to the experts to interpret these clothes further.

An east view of Fort Royal in the Island of Guadaloupe, 1768

An east view of Fort Royal in the Island of Guadaloupe, Lieutenant Archibald Campell, engraved by Peter Mazel, 1768, Library of Congress.

Lieutenant Campbell composed more than one image of Fort Royal during the occupation of Guadaloupe by the British during the Seven Years War. I've featured his North view of the fort in a previous post.

Guadaloupe was one of the Caribbean islands that the British seized from the French during the war, and was returned to them with the Treaty of Paris in 1763.

Just as in Campbell's North view, the East view shows sailors cavorting with soldiers. This time, it isn't a tarpawlin and a lobsterback shaking hands, but a small mess of drinking, smoking, chatting sailors being warned by one sentry of another's approach.

Don't forget, you can click on images to enlarge them!

With a slight smile, our sentry taps this Jack on his back. The sailor in the detail above wears wide legged trousers or slops/petticoat trousers that run all the way to the top of his ankles. Atop his head is an interesting hat. It looks, at first glance, to be a cocked hat, point forward, with the rear brim let down to cover his neck. This makes perfect sense in a tropical climate, but is also the first time I've ever seen this on a primary source image of sailors.

Then again, it might be a round hat with just one brim turned up by the wind. Given the lack of movement on any other fabric, and the slowly rising smoke from the pipes, I'm inclined toward my earlier opinion. What do you think?

In any case, Jack also leans on a walking stick, and wears a double vented jacket with no collar that ends about the top of the thigh.

Sprawled across the ground in relaxation, three sailors enjoy the setting sun, tobacco, and a bottle.

The sailor on the far left, holding the mallet bottle, wears a cocked hat with the point reversed, a jacket with no collar or cuffs, and no waistcoat. A neatly tied neckcloth hangs down over his plain shirt. Wide legged trousers run down to his ankles, where he wears pointed toe shoes.

Our other two tars look beyond their mate toward the horizon. Each of them wears the same slop clothes as their mate, save their headwear. The chap in the background wears a workcap or knit cap, but the tar on the right is a bit harder to nail down. It could be that he's wearing a jockey style cap, but I cannot be sure.

Drawing of a sloop, 1789

Drawing of a sloop, John Thomas Serres, 1789, British Museum.

John was the English born son of the painter Dominic Serres. Dominic was a French born merchant captain captured by the English in the 1740's who settled in London and spent the rest of his life as a famous maritime artist. Dominic was a founder of the Royal Academy, which must have cast a rather long shadow for his son!

John depicts a small crew aboard the sloop as it rides a stiff breeze over choppy waters. They wear round hats with somewhat wider brims and jackets that end at the waist. They appear to wear white trousers, but only the sailor standing by the mast is in a position for us to see the nature of his trousers. The legs are close fitting, so at least for this tar we can conclude that he is not wearing slops/petticoat trousers.

Great Encouragement for Seamen, 1777

"Great Encouragement for Seamen" broadside, E. Russell, 1777, Library of Congress American Memory.

Today's entry is a bit different. Broadsides were a useful recruitment tool for naval and privateer vessels throughout the eighteenth century. Encouraging sailors to sign up with promises of prize money, the authors of these advertisements tried to play to both the sailor's patriotism and their pocketbook.

This broadside is an important piece of history in that it is calling for sailors to man the Ranger under the legendary John Paul Jones. It was this voyage that brought news of Burgoyne's defeat at Saratoga, and brought France into the American Revolutionary War on the side of the Americans.

This figure does not appear to be a sailor. He wears a mitre cap, a regimental coat, breeches, stockings, and a soldier's spatterdashes. Matched with the field gun on the left (clearly not a naval cannon), I think we can safely say this is not a tar. Still, the pose is a familiar one, having appeared on numerous broadsides, not unlike "The British Flag Insulted, a Satyrical Song" from 1757.

Here's where things get interesting. The coat of arms depicted here shows a two masted vessel over a whale or fish. To the left is a phyrgian cap on a pole, a commonly used symbol of liberty. To the right is a figure that almost perfectly matches the previous detail: regimental coat, spatterdashes, and cutlass. His cap might be a mitre cap, a thrum cap, a Dutch cap...maybe even another phyrgian cap! Regardless, this figure is clearly meant to be associated with the nautical nature of the seal.

Is this broadside intended to equate the service of naval seamen with that of the Continental soldiers? Is this image meant to depict a marine? What do you think?

Vuë de Boston, 1770's

"Vuë de Boston," Francis Xaver Habermann, 1770's, Library of Congress.

As I have said before, Habermann is not the most reliable source for sailor's dress in the American colonies. He is a German artist who creates his works from a strictly European perspective. The geography, architecture, and dress of the figures all betray this. Still, any attempt at an exhaustive study of primary source images portraying common sailor's clothing needs to includes the outliers as well as the more trustworthy sources.

Today's print is part of the "Collection of Prospects" by Habermann, portraying famous cities in North America, including New York, Quebec, and (in this case) Boston.

At the far left of the frame is a large warship with a barge alongside. Aboard the barge is a sailor in a single breasted short jacket without pockets or collar, but there is too little detail to say anything about the cuffs. His cocked hat is wide with the point forward, and he wears a bright green pair of breeches with white stockings.

Three tars on the ship work at the lines about the mainmast, but ignore the uncoiled line on the poop deck. They all wear round hats and jackets, two in green, one in red.

Mixed with soldiers, larborers work ashore with a variety of cargoes. If not for the fact that the men at the boxes and barrels matched the clothing of the oarsman in the background, I might have categorized them as dockworkers rather than sailors. to be fair, they may still be dockworkers. I have not yet looked deeply enough into the distinctions of labor (or lack thereof) to be sure. I can say that sailors returning home from merchantmen were expected to unload the cargo before they were paid. But whether they were assisted by dockworkers or could transition into dockworkers themselves and back again, I cannot say for certain. Anyone out there with information on the classes of maritime labor, feel free to comment below!

In any case, the two men at the cargo and the oarsman all wear red waistcoats and green breeches. Two of them wear matching green workcaps. Interestingly, the two men at the cargo wear neither shoes nor stockings. While I expected to see this much more often when I began my exploration of sailor's clothing, this is the first time I have really noticed it in a primary source image. This begs the question: How often did sailors go barefoot? Was it as common as we think, and simply not represented in art? Was it perhaps less common than we imagine?

At the bow of the boat in the background is our final subject. He wears a black knit cap, workcap, or round hat, and white trousers. Looking a bit more closely, we can see his sleeves are rolled up well above the elbow. Though colored the same blue as his torso, the original engraving appears to have him in a waistcoat and shirtsleeves. It is not uncommon to see the original intent of the engraver changed by that of the colorist.

The Arrival of the Princess Charlotte at Harwich, 1761

The Arrival of the Princess Charlotte at Harwich, John Cleveley the Elder, 1761, Peabody Essex Museum.

I want to extend a special thanks to reader Sarah O'Conner! On a recent visit to the Peabody Essex Museum, she spotted this piece and was kind enough to photograph it for this blog.

Cleveley's piece depicts the arrival of the future wife of King George III at Harwich. The royal wedding was a grand occasion. I have addressed the event briefly with the work of Dominic Serres. Perhaps Serres was capturing the view from a more distant shore, or maybe Cleveley thought a much more grandiose piece would better capture the importance of the moment. Either way, we have two very different views of the arrival.

Here's what the Peabody Essex Museum has to say about the piece:

Starting on the left of the frame and working our way right, it is immediately obvious why this piece is so special.

Working one of the large Festival of Sail events that circle the continent, I've seen sailors standing across the yards a few times. The Mexican Navy tall ship Cuauhtemoc sticks out the most in my mind. What Cleveley shows here far surpasses anything I've seen. Scores of sailors standing on the yards of ships across the harbor! 

Both vessels in the detail above also have sailors standing across the bowsprits. The forward most guns on both starboard and larboard fire a greeting to the arriving princess. All of their sailors wave cocked and round hats. Though blue jackets are the majority, we also see red, grey, green, and plenty of shades in between. There is also an even mix between petticoat trousers and breeches. Breeches without the protection of petticoat trousers may be an indication of the importance of this event, with sailors turning out in their best slop clothes.

Abeam and astern of the brig (or possibly ketch), a number of boats and barges pull for the shore. In the center is a fairly impressive barge with the Royal Standard fluttering from her bow. It is safe to assume that the princess is aboard this vessel.

Some of these boats, especially those clustered most closely to Charlotte's barge, are manned by oarsmen in white shirts with black jockey style caps. Others have oarsmen in jackets of a variety of colors wearing cocked hats and at least one bright red knit cap.

Jutting out from the fully rigged ship at the center of this detail is a bright red staircase; nothing less would befit the future queen! Atop the mainpeak is another Royal Standard, indicating that it was this vessel that ferried Charlotte to England. Across her yards and deck is a company entirely decked out in red jackets and breeches, save for the officers in blue. At first I thought the red uniforms was only the marines, but given the relatively short length of their jackets, and the fact that several of them seem to be absent waistcoats, I think this may be the ship's company turned out in a fine set of slop clothes for the occasion. Perhaps the captain chose to outfit his men in matching clothes to distinguish them from the rest of the fleet at Harwich?

The rest of the ships and their men are much the same: breeches, petticoat trousers, a hint or two of trousers, cocked hats, round hats, and a variety of colored jackets. All of the ships are firing salutes from their forward most guns both larboard and starboard, except the one at the center of this detail. It may be out of consideration for the barge to her starboard, but she only fires a gun to leeward.